2) Vascular Tissue System
    Function: Conduction of water, nutrients, sugars and hormones throughout the plant. 
    Tissues:
    a) xylem - conducts water & nutrients up roots, stems and leaves. Common name is wood - it is not solid.
    b) phloem - conducts water, sugar, hormones, etc. down and up roots, stems and leaves;
                       moves from where produced (called source) to where needed (called sink).

3) Ground or Fundamental Tissue System
    Function: Storage, support, filler tissue and site of photosynthesis. 
    Tissues:
    a) cortex - outer region of stems and roots. 
    b) pith - center of stems. 
    c) mesophyll - middle of leaves and flower petals.
 

a) polysaccharide - a polymer or chain of sugars 
1) cellulose- chains of b-1,4-linked glucose (see below); cluster to form a matrix of microfibrils 
2) hemicellulose - filler between cellulose microfibrils (chains of misc. sugar) 
3) pectin - cementing agent or filler; high in middle lamella and fruit; (chains of galacturonic acid); used to make jelling compounds; broken down when fruit ripens.

b) lignin - tough polymer of phenolic compounds; high in secondary cell wall. 
c) protein - mainly structural (most commonly hydroxyproline) 

3) plasmodesmata- tubular plasma membrane extensions through cell walls that connect adjacent cells. 

4) cytoplasm - cytosol plus organelles; most metabolism occurs in the cytosol or its organelles. 

a) cytosol - much of the cytoplasm is a water solution of dissolved compounds 
b) organelles - specialized structures in cytoplasm, each with specific functions. 
1) nucleus - location of DNA and some of the RNA 
a) chromosome - strands or coils of DNA 
b) nucleolus - spherical, dense body; site of ribosome synthesis.
2) mitochondria - major site of respiration; called the "power house" of the cell. 
3) plastid - double membrane-bound bodies for storage and photosynthesis 
 a) leucoplast - colorless plastids 
1) amyloplast- starch storage (chains of a-1,4-linked glucose, below) 
2) elaioplast- fat and oil storage 
b) chromoplast- colored plastids for storage of carotenoids* -  examples, orange (carotene),  red (lyopene), and yellow (xanthophylls, including lutein) pigments 
c) chloroplast - green plastids that contains chlorophyll*; the site of  photosynthesis 
4) endoplasmic reticulum - tubular membranes for communication across the 
                                                  cytoplasm; site of protein & membrane synthesis 
5) ribosome - dense spheres of RNA; protein synthesis occurs on their surface 
6) vacuole- storage of organic acids, salts, anthocyanins* (blue, purple and red)
                       pigments), metabolic wastes, enzymes and metabolites. 
a) tonoplast- membrane that surrounds the vacuole 
7) Golgi body or dictyosome - disk-shaped membranes for membrane and polysaccharide synthesis 
8) microbody- membrane-bound storage bodies with various functions.
9) microtubule - tubular rods used in mitosis & cellulose orientation in cell walls

               *Colored Pigments, Antioxidants and Healthy Foods
 Carotenoids, xanthophylls, chlorophyll & anthocyanins are antioxidants - so eat a rainbow of colors

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is basically a soup of organelles surrounded by the selectively permeable plasmalemma.  Plasmodesmata are tubes that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells.  The fluid portion is called the cytosol and contains dissolved nutrients, gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), sugars and other carbohydrates, oil/fat droplets, proteins, enzymes (catalytic proteins), hormones, and all the other components essential for cell metabolism.  The metabolic reactions of the cell occur in either the cytosol or the organelles .  Each organelle has specific metabolic functions.  In addition, many organelles are designed for storage (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, organic acids, pigments, wastes, etc.). 

  Base Pairing of Nucleic Acids -  between double strands of  DNA
    A- T  (adenine-thymine)
    G - C (guanine-cytosine)
  Base Pairing of Nucleic Acids - between DNA and RNA
    A - U  (adenine-uracil)
    G - C (guanine-cytosine)

    tRNA in mRNA to line up amino acid to make the protein

meristem -  discrete regions or groups of cells that possess continued cell division for the 
                   life of the plant or that organ.

PLANTS EXHIBIT TWO TYPES OF GROWTH
1) Primary Growth - growth in length that gives rise to primary (herbaceous) tissues
                                called the primary plant body.

2 Types of meristems give rise to primary growth
a) apical meristem or apex- the growing points located at the tips of stems and roots.

b) intercalary meristem - the growth region at the base of grass leaves that causes
                                        leaves to elongate. (pronunciation in·ter·ca·lar·y)

          lateral meristem - meristematic regions along the sides of stems and roots.

2 Types of lateral meristems give rise to secondary growth
a) vascular cambium or cambium - a sheet-like meristem between the bark and wood
     along the sides of woody stems and roots; it gives rise to secondary xylem
     (commonly called wood) on the inside and secondary phloem on the outside.

b)  cork cambium or phellogen - gives rise to the periderm (commonly called bark).

2) conduction; through phloem and xylem 

3) food storage; ex. Irish potato tubers 

4) protection; ex. thorns on mesquite 

5) propagation; ex. bulbs, runners, rhizomes 

6) photosynthesis; ex. pads (called cladophylls) on cactus 
 
  LEAVES
1) photosynthesis; site where primarily occurs 

2) regulate water loss; i.e. by opening and closing stoma 

3) storage; ex. carbohydrates and water in garlic, aloe vera 

4) support; ex. tendrils on grape 

5) protection; ex. spines on cacti; bud scales 

6) attraction; ex. bracts on poinsettia or dogwood 

7) propagation; ex. bryophyllum with plantlets on leaves 
 
  ROOTS
1) anchorage; secures plant to ground or for epiphytes to branches

2) absorption; water and nutrients from soil 

3) storage; ex. sweet potato, carrot or radish  tuberous roots,

4) propagation; ex. dahlia or sweet potato tuberous roots, blackberry 

bud - an underdeveloped and unelongated stem composed of a short axis with compressed internodes, a meristematic apex, and primordial leaves and/or flowers.

bud break - when the bud starts to grow the bud scales peel back and the young shoot or flowers start to emerge.
 
terminal bud - a bud at the tip of a stem responsible for terminal growth. 
  

axillary bud or lateral bud - buds along side the axis of a stem; they at were produced by the terminal bud during growth; once they grow out and form a lateral stem they become terminal buds of the lateral branch. 
 

flower bud - a bud containing a floral meristem which develops into flowers; usually larger than vegetative buds. 
 

leaf scar - a scar marking the former point of attachment of a leaf or petiole to the stem. 
 

internode - the part of the stem between nodes 
 

node - part of stem marking the point of attachment of leaves, flowers, fruits, buds and other stems. 
 

lenticel - rough areas on stems (and some fruits, ex. apple) composed of loosely packed cells extending from the cortex through the ruptured epidermis; serve as "breathing pores" for gas exchange. Only occur on young stems. 
 

growth rings  - bud scale scars from the last terminal bud; they denote flushes of growth (usually per year). Can be used to age stems because usually 1 set of growth rings is produced per year on temperate trees in the Temperate Climatic Zone.

stoma - an open aperture (the stomatal pore) in the epidermis surrounded  by 2 guard cells
stomata - plural
a) Usually more frequent on epidermis of lower leaf surface.
b) Found on some herbaceous stems, fruits and petals.

Mechanism of Opening
a) open when guard cells are turgid (due to water uptake in response to potassium  influx) 
b) closed when guard cells are flaccid (due to water loss in response to potassium efflux) 

Daily Cycle
C-3 and C-4 Plants
a) open during day 
b) closed during night 
CAM Plants (Desert plants, ex. Echeveria)
a) open during night 
b) closed during day 

Designed for gas exchange
a) CO₂ in and 0₂ out for photosynthesis 
b) CO₂ out and 0₂ in for respiration 
c) H₂0 out during transpiration 
 

MESOPHYLL

Palisade parenchyma
a) Contains 70-80% of the chloroplasts in the leaf. 
b) Specialized for photosynthesis - because it contains a large number of chloroplasts
    and it occurs towards the top side of leaf 
Spongy mesophyll
a) Contains large air spaces 
b) Specialized for gas exchange - because of the large air space and more stomata occur
      in the epidermis of lower leaf surface 

Sun Grown Leaf
a)  thicker, due to thicker palisade parenchyma layer
Shade Grown Leaf (tobacco, cigar wrapping)
a)  thinner, due to thinner palisade parenchyma layer, therefore, higher proportion of
     spongy mesophyll
b)  larger size
c) softer and more pliable

Flower Types
complete- contains all floral parts, i.e. sepal, petal, stamen and pistil (Trumpet vine)

incomplete - lacks one or more of the floral parts (Century oak; flowering, male flowers called catkins)

perfect - contains both pistil and stamen (may or may not have sepal or petal) 

imperfect - lacks either pistil or stamen (may or may not have sepal or petal)

        pistillate (female) - contains only pistil (may or may not have sepal or petal) (cucumber)

        staminate (male) - contains only stamen (may or may not have sepal or petal) (cucumber)

sterile - both stamen and pistil are absent, or are non-functional 

Plant Types Based on Flower Type Present
monoecious - both staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers occur on the same
                       plant; ex. corn, cucumber

dioecious - staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers occur on separate plants; 
                  ex. holly, persimmon, ginkgo 

FRUIT MORPHOLOGY
fruit - a ripened or matured ovary and its contents plus any accessory tissues. 

pericarp - the fruit wall, which developed from the ovary wall 

Composed of 3 layers:
1) exocarp - outer layer of the pericarp 

2) mesocarp - middle layer of the pericarp 

3) endocarp - inner layer of the pericarp. 

SEED MORPHOLOGY
seed - a ripened or mature ovule consisting of an embryo with associated stored food 
            and covered by a testa.

testa - protective, outer most layer of seeds; commonly called seed coat.